Introduction and Background Information

Attentional focus refers to an athlete's ability to selectively attend to task relevant information while ignoring irrelevant stimuli (Monsma et al.,2017). Research suggests that athletes with elevated levels of attentional control demonstrate superior performance outcomes. Tasi (2023) found that increased attentional levels improved athletes' ability to maintain focus during competition and better regulate negative emotions. Similarly, Monsma et al. (2017) argued that concentration skills are essential in open skill sports because athletes must constantly shift attention between multiple sources of information while maintaining performance under pressure. 

A major area of attentional focus research has investigated the distinction between internal and external attentional focus. Internal focus refers to directing attention towards one's own body movements, whereas external focus involves concentrating on the intended effects of a movement or environmental cues (Wulf 2013). Across a wide range of sporting contexts, external focus has been associated with improved motor learning and performance compared to internal focus (Wulf 2013). Supporting these findings Bell and Hardy (2009) demonstrated that skilled golfers perform more successfully when focusing on external task related cues rather than physical technique. 

Research also suggests that expertise levels influence attentional processes. Jin et al (2023) examined spatial imagery behaviours in basketball players and found that expert athletes were more productive in responding to relevant game information. These findings so that expert players are able to process more information rather than novice players. 

Related to attentional focus is the concept of situational awareness, which refers to an athlete's understanding of the surrounding environment and dissipation of future events. Huffman et al (2022) identified situational awareness as a vital component of successful performance, allowing athletes to perceive, interpret, and predict game situations. Advanced athletes often demonstrate greater situational awareness then amateur athletes due to their increased experience and ability to identify critical performance cues.

Leadership is another important psychological construct associated with successful sporting performance. Athlete leadership refers to the behaviours displayed by individuals who influence teammates towards achieving team goals. (Cotterill & Fransen, 2022). Several leadership theories have been applied within a sports context. Authentic leadership focuses on leaders acting consistently with their values while fostering trust and autonomy amongst teammates (Bandura & Kavussanu, 2018). These outcomes may contribute indirectly to improved performance through enhanced motivation and team functioning. 

Transformational leadership has also received considerable attention in sports psychology. Mach et al. (2022) found that transformational leadership positively influences team performance for increased team cohesion. Similarly, Oh (2023) demonstrated that communication and team cohesion strengthened the positive relationships between transformational leadership and athletic performance.  

Liu et al. (2023) found that athletes who perceived their coach as a transformational leader reported greater satisfaction of psychological needs and a higher level of wellbeing. Even though this research is based on coaches this can still be applied to players. 

Recent research has also explored identity leadership, which refers to leaders creating and reinforcing a shared sense of team identity. Mclaren et al. (2021) found that female athletes who promote a stronger sense of social identity within their teams are associated with greater pro-social behaviour a lower anti-social behaviour among teammates. Similarly, Butalia et al. (2024) highlighted the importance of social identity processes in youth sport leadership. This research effectively suggests that identity leadership helps to develop a sense of belonging and a collective purpose within teams.

Research examining expertise differences consistently suggests that advanced athletes demonstrate superior attentional and leadership capabilities compared to amateur athletes. Expert performers are more effective at identifying relevant performance cues, filtering distractions, maintaining concentration under pressure, and making rapid decisions (Jin et al., 2023). They are also trained to exhibit greater situational awareness and tactical understanding, allowing them to anticipate game developments more efficiently (Huffman et al., 2022). 

Athlete leadership development research suggests that leadership skills are formed for experience, responsibility, and participation in high-performance sporting environments (Cotterill & Fransen, 2022). In contrast, amateur athletes may possess less developed skills in attention, control, and leadership due to their reduced experience and exposure to competitive environments. Amateur athletes are more susceptible to distractions, performance anxiety, and attentional lapses which may negatively influence decision making and performance.

Existing research that has examined attentional focus and leadership in sport, has relied on retrospective interviews, questionnaires, and self-report measures to collect data. These methods require athletes to recall thoughts and behaviours after performance, potentially introducing memory bias and reducing the accuracy of reported cognitive processes. 

The Think Aloud (TA) method has emerged as a valuable alternative for examining cognition during performance. Eccles & Arsal (2017) describes TA as a method that allows researchers to capture participants’ thoughts in real time whilst performing a task. More recently, McGreary et al. (2024) highlighted the growing use of TA protocols within sports psychology and noted verbalised thoughts could provide direct insight into an athlete’s processional processes, decision making, and performance related cognitions. Research by Quick and Lyle (2024) Further demonstrated the usefulness of TA methods for examining cognition in applied sporting environments. 

Despite growing interest in TA research, few studies have simultaneously examined attentional focus and team sport leadership in athletes using real-time data collection methods. Furthermore, limited research has directly compared how advanced and amateur athletes utilise psychological skills during performance. Most existing studies focus on either attentional focus or leadership independently and often rely on retrospective methodologies. 

Therefore, a significant gap remains in understanding how attentional focus and leadership behaviours are expressed in real time performance and how these processes differ between advanced and amateur athletes. Addressing this gap through TA methodology may provide a more accurate understanding of the cognition and leadership processes that underpin expertise in sport.